Pre-Harappan Period
| Lower Paleolithic | Hand axe & cleaver industries | Pahalgam, Belan valley (U.P), | ||||||
| (600,000 – 60,000 BC) | Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, 16 R Singi Talav | |||||||
| Middle Paleolithic | Tools made on flakes | Bhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar, Rohiri | ||||||
| (150,000 – 40,000 BC) | hills of upper sind | |||||||
| Upper Paleolithic | Tools made on flakes & blades | Rajasthan, Parts of Belan & Ganga | ||||||
| (45,000 – 10,000 BC) | Valley (U.P). | |||||||
| Mesolithic/ Microlithic | Parallel sided blades of chert, | Bagor (Raj), Langhnaj (Guj), Sarai | ||||||
| (10,000 – 7000 BC) | chalcedony, jasper, agate | Nahar Rai, Chaopani Mando, Mahdaha, | ||||||
| Damdama (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh. | ||||||||
| Neolithic | Earthern pots | Mehrgarh (Pak) Gufkral & Burzahom | ||||||
| (8000 BC – 2000 BC) | (J&K), Mahgara, Chopani Mando, | |||||||
| Kodihwa in Belan Valley (U.P.) Chirand | ||||||||
| (Bihar). | ||||||||
| Chalcolithic | Distinct painted pottery | Cultures: Ahar culture (oldest), Kayatha, | ||||||
| (3000-900 B.C.) | Fire worship widespread. | Malwa culture, Salvada culture, , | ||||||
| Prabhas culture, Rangpur culture & | ||||||||
| Jorwe culture (newest). | ||||||||
| Copper Hoard Culture | Harpoons, Antennae swords, | Gungeria (M.P-largest) | ||||||
| Anthromorphs | ||||||||
| OCP Culture | Pottery with bright red slip & | All over gangetic plain with same | ||||||
| (Ochre coloured pottery) | painted in black. | regions as that of copper hoard culture. | ||||||
| •Ahar people (Aravalli region) – distinctive black & red ware decorated with white designs. | ||||||||
| •Prabhas & Rangpur wares have a glossy suface due to which they are called lusturous red ware. | ||||||||
| •Jorwe culture (Maharashtra) – painted black on red but has a matt surface treated with a wash. | ||||||||
| Select Harrapan Cities (Chalcolithic Age) | ||||||||
| 1. | Harappa | Great granary, 40 % of total seals found here; Seals usually made of steatite | ||||||
| [Dayaram Sahni] | depicting elephant, bull, unicorn, rhinoceros; figurines – torso | |||||||
| 2. | Mohenjodaro | “Mound of the dead”; largest of all cities; Great Bath; granary; city was | ||||||
| [R.D Banerjee] | flooded occasionally, figurines of yogi, bronze dancing girl, seal bearing | |||||||
| Pashupati. | ||||||||
| 3. | Lothal | [S.R. Rao]. Earliest cultivation of rice; Fire altars | ||||||
| 4. | Kalibangan | [A. Ghosh]. Fire Altars showing cult sacrifice; | ||||||
| 5. | Dholavira, | [R.S. Bisht] | ||||||
| 6. | Banwali | [R.S. Bisht] Fire Altars; | ||||||
| 7. | Mehrgarh | Evidences of cotton; | ||||||
| Indian Religious Books | |
| Puranas | Divided into sarga, pratisarga, manvantantar, vamsa (genealogical list of kings) & |
| vamsanucharita. 18 main puranas & 18 subsidiary puranas. | |
| Vedas | Meaning “knowledge”. Rigveda (hymns), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae), Atharvaveda |
| (magical charms & spell), Samveda. Vedas are called aparusheya (not created by man) & | |
| nity | |
| Upanishads | About 200 in number. Deal with philosophy. Oldest & most important are Chhandogya & |
| Brihadranyaka. Other important are Kathak, Isa, Mundaka, Prasna etc. Do not believe in | |
| sacrificial ceremonies. | |
| Brahmanas | Talks about vedic hymns, their application, stories of their origin. Each Brahmana is |
| associated with one of the four VedasAitareya brahmana is associated with Rig Veda & | |
| Satapatha Brahmana with Yajur veda. | |
| Aranyakas | Meaning ‘the forest books’. They discuss philosophical meditation & sacrifice. |
| Vedangas | Evolved for proper understanding of the Vedas. Six in all: Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa |
| (rituals), Vyakarna, Nirukta (Etymology) Chhanda (metrics) & Jyotisha. | |
| Vedanta | Advaita Vedanta of Adi Sankara. |
Ancient Books & Authors
| 1. | Mudrakshasha (Chandragupta Maurya defeating the Nandas); | Vishakhadatta |
| Devichandraguptam | ||
| 2. | Malavikagnimitram (Pushyamitra Sunga) | Kalidas |
| 3. | Gudavaho (Yasovarman of Kannauj) | Vakpati |
| 4. | Vikramanakadevacharita (Chalukya king Vikramaditya) | Bilhana |
| 5. | Kumarapalacharita | Jayasimha |
| 6. | Hammirakavya | Nyayachandra |
| 7. | Dvayashraya Mahakavya; Sapta Sadhana | Hemchandra |
| 8. | Navashasankacharita | Padmagupta |
| 9. | Bhojaprabandha | Billal |
| 10. | Prithvirajcharita | Chandrabardai |
| 11. | Meghaduta; Raghuvamsa; Kumarasambhava; Vikramorvasiyam | Kalidas |
| Abhijnanashakuntalam (Drama); | ||
| 12. | Mrichakatika | Sudraka |
| 13. | Uttarama-Charita; Malati Madhava | Bhavbhuti |
| 14. | Amarakosha | Amarasimha |
| 15. | Si-yu-Ki | Hiuen Tsang |
| 16. | Brahmasiddhanta; Khandakhadya | Brahmagupta |
| 17. | Dasakumaracharita | Dandin |
| 18. | Astanga-Sangraha; Astanga-Hirdaya-Samhita | Vagabhatta |
| 19. | Panchsiddhantika; Suryasiddhanta; Brihatsamhita | Varahamihira |
| 20. | Karpuramanjari; Bala Ramayana; Bala Bharata; Kavyamimamsa; | Rajshekhara |
| Bhuvana Kosha; Haravilasa | ||
| 21. | Adinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) | Vardhamana |
| 22. | Shantinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) | Devachandra |
| 23. | Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative) | Devabhadra |
| 24. | Prithviraja Vijay | Jayanka |
| 25. | Karnasundari | Bilhana |
| 26. | Saraswati Kanthabharana | Bhoja |
| 27. | Dasharupa | Dhananjaya |
| 28. | Harikeli Nataka | Visaladeva |
| 29. | Prasannaraghava | Jayadeva |
| 30. | Siddhanta Shiromani [4 parts – Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita & | Bhaskaracharya |
| Gola (on Astronomy)] | ||
| 31. | Rajmariganka (On Astronomy) | King Bhoja |
| 32. | Chikitsakalika or Yogamala | Tisata-Vagbhatta’s Son |
| 33. | Mitakasara | Vijnanaeshvara |
| 34. | Nitishastra (On Polity) | Mathara |
| 35. | Nitisara (On Polity) | Kamandaka |
| 36. | Sushruta Samhita (encyclopedia on surgery) | Sushruta |
| 37. | Charaka Samhita (Teachings of Atreya) | Charaka |
| 38. | Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi, Suandarananda | Asvaghosha |
| 39. | Mahabhasya | Patanjali |
| 40. | Harshacharita, Kadambari | Banabhatta |
| 41. | Ravan Vadha | Bhattin |
Famous Inscriptions
| Inscription | King | Aspect | |||||
| Junagarh Rock | Rudradaman (Saka) | Sanskrit. Says that a dam on the sudarshana lake | |||||
| was constructed by Pushyagupta a governor of | |||||||
| Chandragupta Maurya | |||||||
| Allahabad Pillar | Samudragupta | Sanskrit. Composed by Harisena | |||||
| Aihole Inscription | Pulakeshin II | Mentions Harsha defeat by Pulakeshin II. | |||||
| Composed by Ravikriti Vishnuvardan son of King. | |||||||
| Gwalior Inscription | Bhoja | Most famous Pratihara king. | |||||
| Hathigumpha | Kharvela | ||||||
| Boghaz koi | Proves Rig Veda to be | Indra, Varuna, Mitra, two Nasatyas mentioned | |||||
| [1400 B.C.] | more than 1400 BC old. | ||||||
| Nanaghat Inscription | Satkarni I | Achievements of the king | |||||
| [Satvahana king] | |||||||
| Nasik Inscription | Gautamiputra Satkarni | Achievements of the king. | |||||
| Mehrauli Iron Pillar | Chandragupta II | ||||||
| Mandsor Inscription | Kumaragupta I | Composed by Vatsabhatti. | |||||
| Bhitari Stone pillar | Skandagupta | ||||||
| Tiruvalangadu | Rajendra I (Chola) | His conquests (annexed whole of SriLanka) | |||||
| Uttaramerur | Cholar Period | Chola village assemblies | |||||
| Besnagar Inscription | Near Vidisa (MP). Mentions Heliodorus the ambassador of king Antialcidas | ||||||
| called himself Bhagvata & erected garudadhvaja in his honour of Vasudev. | |||||||
| Buddhist Councils | |||||||
| I Buddhist Council | 500 BC at | Ajatsataru . | Record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify | ||||
| Rajgaha | Presided by | monastic rules (vinaya). Rajgaha is today’s | |||||
| Mahakasyapa | Rajgir | ||||||
| II Buddhist Council | 383 BC at | Kalasoka | The conservative schools insisted on monastic | ||||
| Vaishali | rules (vinaya). The secessionist Mahasangikas | ||||||
| argued for more relaxed monastic | |||||||
| rules.Rejection of the Mahasanghikas | |||||||
| III Buddhist Council | 250 BC | Ashoka.. | Purpose was to reconcile the different schools of | ||||
| Pataliputra | Buddhism. Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa | ||||||
| IV Buddhist Council | 100 AD | Kanishka | Division into Hinayana & Mahayana. Theravada | ||||
| Kashmir | Presided by | Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of | |||||
| Vasumitra & | this council, and it is sometimes called the | ||||||
| Asvaghosha | “council of heretical monks”. | ||||||
| V Buddhist Council | 1871 | King Mindon | recite all the teachings of the Buddha and | ||||
| Myanmar | examine them in minute detail to see if any of | ||||||
| them had been altered | |||||||
| VI Buddhist Council | 1954 | P.M. U Nu | |||||
| Yangoon | |||||||
| Nastika Shools of Indian System of Philosophy | ||||||||||
| Charvaka | Believes only in materialism. No life beyond death, no soul no god. | |||||||||
| Jaina | The names of two tirthankaras, Rishabhanath & Aristhanemia finds mention in Rig Veda. | |||||||||
| 540 BC | Twenty third was Parsva, son of Ishvaku king Asvasena. Said to have flourished 300 yrs | |||||||||
| before Mahavira. Mahavira, the last Tirthankara born in Kundagrama near Vaisali. His | ||||||||||
| father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan & mother Trisala was the sister of Chetaka, | ||||||||||
| a Lichchhavi noble. Chetaka’s dauthter was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha. | ||||||||||
| Mahavira was married to Yasoda. Left home at 30 & attained Kaivalya at 42. He accepted | ||||||||||
| 4 doctrines of Parsava & added celibacy to it. Chandragupta Maurya patronized it. Passed | ||||||||||
| away at Pawapuri. | ||||||||||
| Buddha | Gautama (known as Siddhartha as prince) was born in Lumbini near Kapilvastu to | |||||||||
| 566 B.C. | Suddhodhana, the king of Sakya republic & Mayadevi who died seven days after his birth. | |||||||||
| Gautama was married to Yasodhara from whom he had a son Rahul. 6 years of meditation | ||||||||||
| led to enlightenment. First sermon in Sarnath known as ‘Set in motion the wheel of law’. | ||||||||||
| Eight fold paths. Buddhism denies efficacy of vedic rituals & superiority of brahmanas. | ||||||||||
| Followers were upasakas & bhikshus. Died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar. | ||||||||||
| Astika Schools of Indian System of Philosophy | ||||||||||
| Vaisesika | Five elements – Earth, water, air, fire, Ether. | |||||||||
| Nyaya | Accepts all categories of Vaisesika & adds one Abhava (negation). | |||||||||
| Samkhya | Oldest of all. Twenty five basic principles first being ‘Prakriti’. Gives | |||||||||
| doctrine of 3 qualities – virtue (sattva), passion (rajas) & dullness (tamas) | ||||||||||
| Yoga | Salvation through: Yama (self control), Niyama, Asanas, Pranayama, | |||||||||
| Pratyahara (restrain), Dharana (steady mind), Dhyana & Samadhi. | ||||||||||
| Mimamsa | Recognises Vedas as final authority. | |||||||||
| Vedanta | Adi Sankara is protagonist. Ultimate reality ‘Brahma’ is one. Highest | |||||||||
| level of truth is that the whole world that exists is Maya. Ramanuja | ||||||||||
| (founder of Sri Vaishnavism) differed from Sankara on his commentaries | ||||||||||
| on Upanishads & Gita. | ||||||||||
| Forms of Marriage | ||||||||||
| 1. | Brahma | Duly dowered girl to a man of the same class | ||||||||
| 2. | Daiva | Father gives daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee | ||||||||
| 3. | Arsa | A token bride price of a cow & a bull is given in place of the dowry | ||||||||
| 4. | Prajapatya | Father gives girl without dowry & without demanding the bride price | ||||||||
| 5. | Gandharva | Love Marriage | ||||||||
| 6. | Asura | In which bride was bought from her father | ||||||||
| 7. | Rakshasa | Marriage by capture, practiced especially by warriors. | ||||||||
| 8. | Paishacha | Marriage by seduction | ||||||||
| Daiva marriage was considered ideal 7 paisacha the worst. | ||||||||||
| Dynasties of Ancient Northern India | |||
| Dynasty | King | Description | |
| Haryanka | Bimbisara* | Founded after overthrowing the Brihadrathas. He also annexed | |
| Anga | |||
| Ajatasatru | Conquered Lichhavis of Vaisali. Also defeated Prasenajit of | ||
| Kosala. Succeded by Udayani who founded Pataliputra. | |||
| Sisunga | Sisunga | People elected Sisunga as Udayani & his 3 successors were | |
| unworthy | |||
| Nanda | Mahapadma | Barber but a great military genius. Defeated many dynasties. | |
| Nanda* | |||
| Alexander’s | Alexander | Defeated Persian King Darius III & marched to India through | |
| Campaign | Khyber pass. King of Taxila offered help. | ||
| Mauryas | Chandragupta | Educated by Chanakya at Taxila. ‘Parisistha Parvam’ a jain text | |
| Maurya* | describes that he defeated the Nanda king & became ruler of | ||
| [324-300 BC] | Magadha empire. Defeated Greek, Selecus who had succeded | ||
| Alexander in the eastern part. Selecus sent Megasthenes to his | |||
| court. | |||
| Bindusara | He appointed his two sons, Sumana at Taxila & Ashoka at Ujjain. | ||
| [300-273 BC] | Ptolemy Philadelphous of Egypt sent Dionysius to his court. | ||
| Ashoka | Known as devanampiya & piyadasi. Edicts were in Greek & | ||
| Aramaic in Afghanistan, Prakrit language & Kharosthi script in | |||
| Pakistan. Prakrit language & Brahmi script in other areas. Rock | |||
| Edict XIII (Kalinga war) Bhabru Edict (Buddhism as his religion) | |||
| VII (all sects desire self control & purity) XII (equal respect to all | |||
| religion) II (Dhamma – Common code of conduct). Succeded by 6 | |||
| Mauryan kings from Dasaratha to Brihadratha. | |||
| Sunga | Pushyamitra | Army chief of Maurya king Brihadratha killed him while he was | |
| Sunga | reviewing the army. Succeded by Agnimitra, Jethmitra & | ||
| Vasumitra. Last king was Devabhuiti. | |||
| Meghavahanas | Kharavela | Hathigumpha inscription on Udaigiri hills near Bhubneshwar | |
| refers his achievement till 13th year. Ruled Kalinga. | |||
| Satvahanas of | Simuka* | Satvahanas also known as Andhras. Succeeded by Krishna, | |
| Deccan | [235-213 BC] | Satkarni I, Satakarni II, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Pulmavi II, Sri | |
| Yajna Satakarni. | |||
| Indo Greeks | Menander | Ruled in Pakistan region. Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena. | |
| Milindapanho is related to their conversation. | |||
| Sakas | Nahapana | Sakas also known as Scythians were driven out of their original | |
| home land by Yueh Chi who later came to be known as Kushanas. | |||
| Nahapana ruled in western India. | |||
| Rudradaman | Junagarh Rock Inscription talks about him. He undertook the | ||
| 130-150 AD | repairs of the Sudarsan dam built by Pushyagupta, governor of | ||
| Chandra Gupta Maurya. Ujjaynii was capital. Dynasty came to an | |||
| end with the last king being defeated by Chandragupta II in 390 | |||
| AD | |||
| Kushanas | Kadphises I | Also called Kujula Kadphises. Kadphises I was succeded by his | |
| son Wema Kadphises or Kadphises II – devotee of Shiva. | |||
| Kanishka | Succeded Kadphises II. Capital of his vast empire was Purushapur | ||
| 73 – 101 AD | or modern Peshawar. | ||
| The Guptas & Later Period | ||
| Guptas | Chandragupta I | Sri Gupta was the first Gupta king followed by Ghatotkacha. |
| AD 320 AD | Chadragupta I was Ghatotkacha’s son. | |
| Samudragupta | Son of Chandragupta I. Undertook south India campaign. | |
| Meghavarna, King of Srilanka sent an embassy to his court to | ||
| build a monastery at Bodh Gaya. | ||
| Chandragupta II | Son of Samudtragupta & Duttadevi. Married his daughter | |
| 380-413 AD | Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II of Vataka dynasty. Defeated | |
| Sakas & took the title of Vikramaditya. | ||
| Later Guptas | Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta (Inflicted a crushing defeat on the | |
| Hunas; repair of the dam on Sudarsana lake built by chandragupta | ||
| maurya & earlier repared by Rudradaman I. | ||
| Post Gupta | From the decline of Gupta & the rise of Harsha there flourished four major kingdoms | |
| Peiod | in north India: Guptas of Magadha, Maukharis (around Kanauj), Maitrakas | |
| (Saurashtra – Vallabhi as capital), Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar (Uttaranchal). | ||
| Pushyabhuti | Harshavardhana | Son of Prabhakarvardhana of Pushyabhuti of Thaneshwar. Brother |
| 606 – 647 AD | of Rajyavardhana & Rajyasri (sister married to Maukhari king, | |
| Grahavarman of Kanauj, later killed by Sasanka of Gauda). Also | ||
| known as Siladitya. Gauda was later divided between him & | ||
| Bhaskarvarman, the king of Kamarupa. | ||
| Deccan & | Vatakas (Deccan) – Vindhyasakti*, *Pravarasena*. Replaced by Chalukyas. | |
| South India | Rashtrakutas – Dantidurga I*. They succeded Chalukyas of Badami. | |
| Western Gangas (Mysore) – Konkanivarman Dharmamahadhiraja* | ||
| Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi – Mayursarman*, *Kakusthavarman* | ||
| Pallavas of Kanchipuram – Simhavishnu, Mahendravarman , *Narsimhavarman* | ||
| Later Kanauj was ruled by Yashovarman (discussed in Vakpati’s Gaudavaho) | ||
| Gurjara | Nagabhatta I* | After Nagabhatta I came Vatsaraja who defeated Dharmapala but |
| Pratiharas | was in turn defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva. Dhramapala | |
| taking advantage installed his nominee chakrayudha at Kanauj | ||
| Nagabhatta II | Defeated Chakrayudha & captured Kanuaj & defeated | |
| Dharmapala. Ramabhadra succeded him | ||
| Bhoja | Succeded his father Ramabhadra. Defeated Rashtrakuta king | |
| Krishna II. He was devotee of Vishnu & took the title of | ||
| Adivaraha. He was followed by great ruler Mahendrapala I | ||
| Palas | Gopala* | Elected by people to end Matsyanyaya (internal disorder). Next |
| was Dharmapala who installed Chakrayudha at Kanauj but was | ||
| defeated by Dhruva. | ||
| Devapala | Most mighty pala king. | |
| Rashtrakutas | Dantidurga* | Dantidurga was succeded by his uncle Krishna I (built Kailasha) |
| Dhruva | Defeated both the Pratihara king Vatsaraja &Pala Dharampala. | |
| Was succeded by Govinda III & later Amoghavarsha I. Later | ||
| came Indra III (defeated pratihara Mahipala I) & Krishna III | ||
| Kamarupa | Bhaskarvarama | Ruled by single dynasty from the time of Mahabharata upto middle |
| 7th century till Bhaskaravarma (ally of Harsha). Dynasty came to | ||
| an end after his death. | ||
| South India | |||||||||||||||
| Cholas | Karikala | Defeated joint forces of Chera & Pandyas. Also conquered Sri | |||||||||||||
| Lanka. Capital was at Puhar (Kaveripattanam) | |||||||||||||||
| Pandyas | Nedunjeliyan | Capital at Madurai & port at Korkai. Defeated Cholas & Cheras | |||||||||||||
| Cheras | Nedunjeral | Cheras are also known as Keralaputras. Nedunjeral Adan & | |||||||||||||
| Adan | Sengutturan were the greatest king. | ||||||||||||||
| Kings & their Court Jewels | |||||||||||||||
| 1. | Pushyamitra Sunga | Patanjali | |||||||||||||
| 2. | Mahendrapala I (Pratihara) | Rajshekhara | |||||||||||||
| 3. | Kanishka | Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, Sushruta, Nagarjuna | |||||||||||||
| 4. | Chandragupta II | Kalidas, Fa-Hien, Varahamihira | |||||||||||||
| Monuments of Ancient Period | |||||||||||||||
| 1. | Udaygiri Caves | During Chandragupta’s reign at Vidisha, M.P. | |||||||||||||
| 2. | Angorwatt Temples | Suryavarman Ii | |||||||||||||
| 3. | Vikramashila University | Pala King Dharampala | |||||||||||||
| 4. | Kailash Temple (Ellora) | Rashtrakuta king Krishna I | |||||||||||||
| 5. | Dilwara Temple | Tejapala | |||||||||||||
| 6. | Rathas of Mamallapuram | Mahendravarman I (Pallava King) | |||||||||||||
| 7. | Khajuraho temples | Chandelas | |||||||||||||
| 8. | Martanda temple (Kashmir) | Lalitaditya Muktapida | |||||||||||||
| 9. | Gommateswara (Son of Rishabnath) | Chamundaraya, Minister of the Ganga King, Rajamalla | |||||||||||||
| (Sravanbelagola, Karnataka) | |||||||||||||||
| 10. | Hoysalesvara Temple (at Halebid) | Ketamalla, a minister of KingVishnuvardhana (Karnataka) | |||||||||||||
| Mahajanapadas | |||||||||||||||
| Kasi | Varanasi | ||||||||||||||
| Kosala | Sravasti | ||||||||||||||
| Kuru | Indraprashta | ||||||||||||||
| Kamboja | Rajput | ||||||||||||||
| Anga | Champa | ||||||||||||||
| Avanti | Ujjayini & Mahishmati | ||||||||||||||
| Ashmaka | Potana | ||||||||||||||
| Malla | Kusinagar & Pawa | ||||||||||||||
| Magadha | Rajgriha or Giriraj | ||||||||||||||
| Matsya | Virat Nagari | ||||||||||||||
| Vajji | Vaisali | ||||||||||||||
| Vatsa | Kausambhi | ||||||||||||||
| Surasena | Mathura | ||||||||||||||
| Panchala | Aichhatra | ||||||||||||||
| Chhedi | Shuktimati | ||||||||||||||
| Gandhara | Taxila & Pushkalavati | ||||||||||||||
Administrative Units & Their Ancient Names
| S | Administrative Part | North India | South India |
| 1. | Provinces | Bhukti | Mandalam |
| 2. | Divisions | Vishaya or Bhoga | Kottams or Vallandadu |
| 3. | District | Adhistana/Pattana | Nadu |
| 4. | Tehsil | Vihtis | Pattala/Kurram |
Jargon of Ancient Period
| Lohit Ayas | Copper | Pradeshika | Head of district Administration |
| Syam Ayas | Iron | Nagarka | City administration |
| Vanik | Traders | Jesthaka | Chief of a Guild |
| Gramini | Village Head | Prathamakulika | Chief of artisans |
| Bhagadugha | Tax collector | Uparika | Governor of Bhukti |
| Sthapati | Chief Judge | Didishu | Remarried woman |
| Takshan | Carpenter | Amatya | High official |
| Niska | Unit of currency | Dvija | Initiation into education |
| Satamana | Unit of currency | Yukta | Revenue officer in the Mauryan period. |
| Pana | Term used for coin | Rajjukas | Land measurement & fixing land revenue |
| Shresthi | Guilds | Sabha | Assembly of few select ones |
| Vihara | Buddhist Monastery | Samiti | Larger Assembly |
| Chaitya | Sacred Enclosure | Dharamamahamatya | Most important post created by Asoka. |
Miscellaneous Facts:
- The Sangama literature [0-400AD] consists of 30,000 lines of poetry divided into two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (older) & Pattupattu (newer). Established by Pandyan kings of Tamil region.
- The credit to complete the chart of Ashokan alphabets goes to James Prinsep.
- Most of the modern scripts of India including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla have developed from Brahmi script. Ashokan inscription of Shahbazgari & Manashera are written in Kharoshthi.
- The earliest coins were punch marked silver & copper coins. They bear only symbol & no inscription or legend. Kushanas (Vima Kadphises – figure of Siva standing beside a bull) issued mostly gold coins.
- Buddha did not visit Taxila in his life.
- Some of the important rock painting sites are Murhana Pahar (U.P), Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lakha Juar (M.P.) & Kapagallu (Karnatka).
- The extent of Indus valley civilization was Sutkagendor (Baluchistan), Alamgirpur (Meerut), Daimabad (N. Maharashtra) & Manda (J & K). Harrapan civilization is often referred to as Bronze Age civilization. No unambiguous depiction of horse found on any seal. The largest number of seals depict unicorn.
- Inscription was from right to left but if more than one line than alternated to left to right & vice versa.
- Yoga was in vogue in Indus civilization. Shiva, Mother goddess, trees, linga, yoni were worshiped. Chanhudaro is the only city without a citadel & Surkotada is the only site where the actual remains of a horse have been found.
- Decline of Harrapa: Wheeler (Barbarian Aryans attack), John Marshall (environment degradation).
- The Nadisukta hymn of Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include Ganga in the east & the Kubha (Kabul) in the west. Saraswati is considered to be the most important. Zero was known in rig vedic times
- In the vedic age the varnas were not rigid but they became so in the later vedic period & became birth based rather than profession based. Untouchability had not yet reared its ugly head. Jati had not become a rigid system. Bali which was a voluntary gift to chief earlier became a regular tax in the later vedic age.
- Moksha can be acquired by Gyan, Bhakti & Karma. Four dynasties stand out prominently in the sixth century B.C are Haryankas of Magadha, Ishvakus of Kosala, the Pauravas of Vatsa & the Pradyotas of Avanti.
- During the time of Ashoka, Pataliputra was administered by a city council of 30 members divided into a board of 5 members each. Sales tax on goods was 10 %. The Ashokan Pilar with Lion Capital is located at Lauriya Nandangarh, Pillar capital from Rampurva & Capital from Sarnath. Seven rock cut chaitya
caves in the Barabar & Nagarjuni hill show that the tradition of rock cut caves in India began with the
Mauryas.
- The indo-Greeks were the first whose coins carried the portraits of kings & their names. Also they were the first rulers to issue gold coins.
- In the south the old phase is known as the megalithic phase with the burials being marked by abundance of iron tools & a Black & red pottery. It appears there was an abrupt change from Neolithic to iron age, without any significant Chalcolithic or Bronze age.
- Anuloma (marriage between male of higher varna& female of lower varna) was considered better than Pratiloma (vv). Grihasta ashram had the duties of yajna, adhyayana &dana.
- Hinayana was the old order. Mahayana introduced concept of Bodhisttavas, worship of Buddha as god (Hinayanists considered him just a great teacher), salvation of all beings, Sanskrit as new language. The development of Mahayana philosophy is ascribed to Nagarjuna who propounded Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as Sunyavada.
- The Mathura & Gandhara schools of art flourished during Kushana period. Mathura school had the distinction of producing the first image of Buddha & Gandhara school was a hybrid of Indo-Greek form.
- The Stupas as Sanchi, Sarnatha, Amaravati, Bharhut are the best examples. I-tsing came to India in 7th century after spending several years in Sumatra & Sri Vijaya learning Buddhism.
- In south India, among the Nayannar saints, Tirumular’s Tirmurais are prominent. Saiva saints (Nayannars) were 63 in number. Lingayat (founded by Basava – Kalachuri) was other important sect of Saivism in south India influenced by both Sankara & Ramanuja. Vaishnave saints known as Alvars are traditionally 12 in number. Collection of their work is known as Nalayiraprabandham.
- The first Jaina council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of third century BC & resulted in compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. In the sixth century A.D. the second Jaina council was held at Valabhi under Devaradhi Kshamasramana & Jain canon was defined.
- The avatars of Vishnu are matsya, kurma (tortoise), varah (boar), narasimha, vaman (dwarf), parasurama, rama, Krishna, Buddha (the enlightened one) & kalki (to appear).
- West Bengal was known as Gauda & East Bengal as Vanga. Utkala (Orissa), Pragjotishpur (Assam).
- The king of Suvarnadwipa (modern Malaya), Balaputradeva erected a monastery at Nalanda & requested Devapala to donate five villages for the maintenance.
- The philosophy of Sankaracharya (Adi Sankara) is known as Advaita meaning ‘non dual’. He believed that absolute reality called ‘Brahma’ is non dual. Jyotirmatha at Badrinath, Sharadapitha at Dwakra,
Govardhanamatha at Puri & Shringerimatha in south. He organized Ascetics in ten orders – Giri, Puri (city), Bharati (learning), Vana (wood), Aranya (forest), Parvata, Sagara, Tirtha, Ashrama& Saraswati.
- Angkorvat temple dedicated to Vishnu & the famous Borobudur stupa in Java. The Sailendra dynasty ruled over SE Asia & followed Mahayana Buddhism.
- Eastern King (Samrat), Western King (Suvrat), Northern king (Virat), Southern King (Bhoja). After partition of India the largest number of Harappan settlements have been found in Gujarat.
- The utensils of the Harappan people were made of clay. Lead was not known to the Indus valley people. The Aryans came from Central Asia is widely accepted. The Vedic Aryans first settled in the region of Sapta Sindhu.
- The Gayatri Mantra is addressed to Savitri (associated with sun god). Two highest gods in the Vedic religion were Indra (war god) & Varuna (ocean god). Division of vedic society The oldest mention of varna system (four classes) is in the Purusha sukta of Rigveda. The dasas & dasyus mentioned in the Rig Veda refer to non-Aryans.
- The Hindu social sacraments such as marriage are performed on the basis of ritual described in the Grihyasutras. The symbols associated with the five great events of the Buddha are birth (lotus & lion), great renunciation (horse), attainment of knowledge (banyan tree), first sermon (wheel), death (stupa & foot prints). According to Buddha the cause of all sorrows is Trishna (attachment).
- Vinayak Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka contain teachings of the Buddha. Jatakas are stories of Buddhas previous life. Outside India, Buddhism was first accepted in Sri Lanka.
- The Mauryan sculptors had gained highest perfection in the carving of Pillars & the most striking feature is their polish. Two great Buddhist stupas rebuilt during the Sunga (were Brahmanas) Period were Dhammekh stupa at Sarnath & the stupa at Sanghot.